JOURNAL OF MEDICAL & CLINICAL CASE REPORTS

Figure 3: Represents a stylized visualization of quantum mechanics concepts featuring various mathematical equations, geometric representations, and wave-like patterns. (On the left side) Several fundamental relationships are listed (such as momentum to energy, classical momentum, etc). (Center) Hamiltonian operator representing the total energy (kinetic and potential energies) of a system. (On the right side) several wavefunction representing the probability amplitudes (for details, see the text of Niazi et al [8] and adopted from the same ref).

Nanoparticle and Nanotechnology

Figure 4: Shows the size of nano-particle as viewed in the measuring scale.

(a) in the form of particles, tubes, rods, or fibres, (b) the bulk form of the same composition may

have different physicochemical potentials [9,10], and (c) may behave differently when they enter the human body, particularly in the blood cells [11].

Relevance of Quantum Tunneling and Nano-particles in Biological Systems and Medicine

Quantum tunneling (QT) is a phenomenon where particles pass through energy barriers that would be classically insurmountable. In biology and medicine, this is relevant in several contexts. For example:

• Enzyme Function and Drug-Receptor Interactions — The QT plays a crucial role in many enzymatic reactions, especially those involving hydrogen transfer, allowing reactions to proceed faster than classical physics predicts. Understanding this effect helps in designing more effective drugs and enzyme inhibitors (Figure 5)
• Cellular Communication — Some investigation suggests QT may be involved in the rapid movement of ions through cell membrane channels, which could explain the efficient synchronization of ion waves across and between cells (Figure 5).
• Nanomedicine and Tunneling Nanotubes (TNTs) — studies in the case of tunneling nanotubes associated with biological phenomena suggest that tiny membrane channels allow the process of direct transfer of materials, including nanoparticles and nano-medicines, between cells. In the case when not a direct “quantum tunnel,” then the “biological tunneling mechanism is useful for better control of drug distribution within tissues.
• Disgnostics — used for quantum imaging for highly sensitive detection
• Targeted delivery — can be used for precision drug delivery
• Therapeutic Design — Designing novel drugs that leverage or block quantum tunneling.
• Life Energy — Some scientists believed that the life energy concept is a complex one and that can be seen as the energy that binds together the atoms and molecules which make up living organisms, implying that this energy would be responsible for complex interactions at the molecular level in such a manner that finally allows living things to grow, reproduce, and respond their environment.
• Linking together — It has been proposed that life energy could be seen as a form of simple phenomenon in which two particles are linked together in such a way that they share the same fate even though they are separated by a great distance. This idea could explain how living organisms are able to maintain their coherence and functions even though they are made up of trillions of individual cells in the human body.

This means that a connection exists between “quantum tunnel” and “nano-particles” in medicine, which follow quantum mechanical principles for advanced nanoparticle design and for exploring the role of quantum phenomenon, i.e., tunneling, towards understanding the scenario of the fundamental biological processes useful for preparation of nanomedicine.

The pancreas is a gland, about six inches long, located in the abdomen (figure 6A). It is shaped like a flat pear and is surrounded by the stomach, small intestine, liver, spleen, and gallbladder (figure 6B). The wide end of the pancreas on the right side of the body is called the head. The middle sections are the neck and body. The thin end of the pancreas on the left side of the body is called the tail (figure 6C). The uncinate process is the part of the gland that bends backward and underneath the head of the pancreas. Three major blood vessels cross behind the pancreas: the superior mesenteric artery, the superior mesenteric vein, and the portal vein. The pancreas is both an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland and has two main functions: (i)  digestion and (ii) blood sugar regulation. Thus, the pancreas is such an organ that can be considered as a “Trusted Source” to produce digestive enzymes by sitting within the abdomen behind the stomach. Not only that, but this organ also produces “insulin,” which is a hormone that helps to regulate blood glucose levels. It is to be noted that the cells that produce insulin are known as “Beta Cells,” which are located in the islets of Langerhans, a set of structures within the pancreas.

Synchronization between Pancreas and Insulin, and Diabetes

The pancreas in the human body is a complex gland with a dual role : (a) in one role, it is active towards digestion and metabolism through the secretion of digestive enzymes associated with the exocrine portion for breaking down food, while (b) in another role, it secretes hormones i.e., insulin and glucagon  to control sugar levels from the endocrine portion. That is, the endocrine pancreas produces insulin in the human body [12]. In fact, insulin and glucagon hormones work together to regulate the level of sugar (i.e., glucose) in the body to keep our body healthy.

Basic functions of the pancreas at high and low sugar levels

As it produces these two hormones, the pancreas plays a significant role as a switch “ON” and “OFF” methods depending on the level of high and low situations.

● when the glucose level in bloodstream goes up : (1) pancreas first detects this rise → (2) the pancreas pumps out insulin from the blood → (3) insulin helps by sending signal to muscles and other cells to uptake the pumpouted  glucose → (4) this causes glucose level in bloodstream to fall down till it  reaches normal point → (5) pancreas switches off insulin production as soon as detect the normal limit

● when the glucose level in bloodstream goes down : (1) pancreas first detects this drop → (2) pancreas switches on to increase the output of glucagon into the bloodstream → (3) glucagon sends signal to liver to breakdown glycogen (the stored form of glucose) into glucose → (4) liver stars to release more glucose into the bloodstream → (5) pancreas detects this rise in bloodstream, and switches off glucagon release as soon as blood glucose level reaches its normal set point.

If there is insufficient insulin in the body, cells can no longer take up glucose from the blood. As a result, levels of glucose in the blood rise. A doctor may refer to this as having high blood glucose, or hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia is responsible for most of the symptoms and complications of diabetes.  So, ● (a) Type 1 diabetes occurs when the body does not produce insulin, while ●(b) type 2 diabetes occurs when the body does not make or use insulin effectively.

Complications and Management of Diabetes

In diabetes, the realistic scenario is that the body either does not produce enough insulin or produces insulin, but it does not use it effectively. A survey of around 200 million people with type 2 diabetes hints that

1. The first line of treatment is the use of the synthetic drug “metformin” [14].
2. Use of metmorfin exerts regulatory effects on the immune system, gut microbiota, and intestinal tract [15].
3. while use of glibenclamide and chlorpropamide on one side reduces the probability of microangiopathic complications, and in other side improves the insulin sensitivity, along with its inability to stop the gradual loss of glycemic control and β-cell failure [14].
4. In this context, sulfonylureas have shown their capability to promote β-cell death as observed in multiple investigations [15]. For example, the number of apoptotic β-cells increased by a factor of 1.5 at greater doses of nateglinide, while at lower concentrations no promotion of β-cell apoptosis.
5. Use of alpha-glucosidase inhibitors for diabetes treatment exhibits a slowdown behavior regarding the digestion of carbohydrates through alpha-glucosidase enzymes.
6. In order to prevent hyperglycemia, another antidiabetic drug, i.e., metformin, is used, but it lowers the insulin receptors (IRs-1) for production but increases (i.e., high) insulin levels.
7. Latest therapies such as incretin mimetics/analogs and dipeptidylpeptidase-4 (DPP4), sodium glucose cotransporters inhibitors 2 (SGLT2) all produce side-effects in the diabetic treatments.